Historical Timeline of Vacuum Coating and Vacuum/Plasma Technology

Search the Historical Timeline for key events and developments
associated with the history of vacuum coating and
vacuum/plasma technology.

	VACUUM COATING TECHNOLOGY			VACUUM/PLASMA TECHNOLOGY
		1600	Prior to 1600	Water (syringe) pump (Galileo; Beekman)
			1600	Book De Magnete (On the Magnet) (Gilbert)
			1640	Piston vacuum (air) pump (von Guericke) • Water manometer (Berti)
			1643	Mercury barometer (Torricelli)
			1654	"Magdeburg hemispheres" experiment (von Guericke)
			1660	Mercury manometer vacuum gauge (sometime prior to 1660) (Boyle)
			1662	Boyle's Law (Boyle)
			1672	Electrostatic ("frictional") electricity-generating machine (von Guericke)
			1678	Picard’s glow (plasma)
		1700
			1706	Frictional electricity (Hauksbee)
			~1720	Electrical ("glow") discharge generated (Hauksbee)
			1732	Conduction of electricity & charging by induction (Gray)
			~1745	Leyden jar (air capacitor) (von Kleist)
			1749	Concept of positive and negative charges (Franklin)
1805	Relation of contact angle to surface energy (Young)	1800	1800	Voltaic pile (battery) (Volta)
			1801	Law of partial pressures (Dalton)
			1802	Chemistry in electric spark discharge (Davy)
1817	Aging forms an AR coating on lenses (Fraunhofer)		1801	Galvanometer (Ampére)
			1820	Magnetic field around current-carrying wire (Oersted)
			1831	Electromagnetic induction (Faraday)
			1832	Generation of electricity (Pixii)
			1836	High-voltage induction coil (Callan)
			1838	Electrical discharge tube research (Faraday)
1839	Arc melting (Hare)		1850	Leybold founded
			1851	Rubber produced (Goodyear) • Heraeus founded
1852	Sputtering reported (Grove; Faraday 1854)
			1855	Mercury piston pump (Geissler) • Bending of "cathode rays" in a magnetic field (Plücker)
1857	Arc evaporation to form "films" (Faraday)		1857	Platinum-glass seal (Geissler)
			1864	Book On the Dynamic Theory of Electromagnetic Fields (Maxwell)
			1865	Mercury siphon vacuum pump (Sprengel)
			1869	"Cathode rays" project "shadows" (Hittorf)
1874	Plasma polymerization reported (deWilde; Thenard)		1874	McLeod vacuum gauge (McLeod)
1877	Sputter (arc?) deposition to form mirrors (Wright)		1879	Carbon filament lamp {Sprengel pump used in production} (Edison) • Investigations of plasmas (Crookes 1880s)
1880	Pyrolysis {CVD} of hydrocabon vapors (Sawyer & Mann)
			1883	Diode conductance ("Edison effect"—thermoelectron emission (Edison)
1884	Patent filed for (issued 1894) on arc deposition and thermal evaporation from solid surface (Edison) • Term "electro vacuous deposition" for arc deposition (Edison)
			1885	Inductively excited plasmas {"electrodeless ring discharge"} (Hittorf) • Optical glass plant opened in Germany [Schott]
1887	Vacuum sublimation (Pt) to form films (Nahrwold; Kundt 1888)
			1888	Thermoelectron emission (Elster & Geitel)
			1889	Paschen's rule (Paschen)
1891	Term "electrical evaporation" for sputtering (Crookes) • CVD nickel from carbonyl (Mond)		1890	Pfeiffer Vacuum company founded [Germany]
1892	"Seed coat" on wax phonograph masters by sputter deposition (Edison)
			1892	Dewar-type liquefied gas storage vessel (Dewar)
			1894	Isolation of argon from air (Ramsay)
			1895	Discovery of x-rays (Röntgen) • Stokes Machine Co. founded; later became Stokes Vacuum in 1924
1896	Chemical techniques for forming AR coating were developed • CVD of metals (Aylsworth & de Lodyguine)		1896	Current rectification (valve tube) (Fleming)
1897	Optical interference measurement of film thickness (Wiener)
			1898	Discovery of the electron (Thompson)
1902	Patent for sputter deposition of seed-layer of gold on phonograph cylinders (Edison)	1900	1901	Electric "vacuum cleaner" patent (Booth)
1903	Vacuum arc melting (von Bolton)
			1905	Electric motor driven vacuum pump (Kaufman & Gaede)
			1906	Invention of the triode vacuum tube {starting the age of vacuum tube electronics} (de Forest) • Pirani vacuum gauge (Pirani) • Thermocouple vacuum gauge (Voege)
1907	Patent for E-beam vacuum melting (Pirani)
1908	Epitaxial film growth (Barker)
1909	Momentum transfer theory of sputtering (Stark)		1909	Triode ionization vacuum gauge (von Baeyer)
1910	Measurement of vapor pressures (Langmuir 1910s & 1920s)		1910	General use of oil-sealed rotary vane mechanical pump
~1911	First use of the term "spluttering" (later sputtering)
1912	Vacuum evaporation from crucible (Pringsheim & Pohl)		1912	First neon sign
1913	Studies of equilibrium vapor pressure (Langmuir; Knudsen 1915; Knacke & Stranski 1956; Hoenig 1962)		1913	Mercury vapor diffusion pump (Langmuir; Gaede 1915) • Molecular drag pump (Gaede; Holweck 1923)
1915	Sputter deposition to form foils (Edison)
1917	Sputter deposited thin-film resistors on glass rods		1916	Hot cathode ionization gauge (Buckley)
			1917	Bourdon vacuum gauge (Lorenz)
			1919	Short-wave radio • Edwards High Vacuum founded {UK}
1920	Sputtering theory (Guntherschulzer 1920s & 1930s)	1920	1920	Langmuir probe (Langmuir)
			1921	Plasma desorption from surfaces (Campbell)
			1922	Book Production and Measurement of High Vacuum (Dushman)
			1924	Rotary piston vacuum pump [Stokes]
		1925
			1926	Oil in diffusion pump (Burch; Hickman 1936)
1928	Thermal evaporation from filament (Ritschl)
			1929	Capacitance manometer vacuum gauge (Olsen & Hurst)
1930	Sputter roll coating of silver on cloth (Germany)	1930
1933	Filament evaporation of aluminum (Strong) • "Reactive sputter deposition" (Overbeck) • Indirect E-beam evaporation (O’Brian & Skinner) • Gas evaporation to form very fine particles (Pfund) • Plasma activation of reactive gas during evaporation (Heitman; Berraz)		1933	Neoprene (artificial) rubber (Dupont)
1934	Sputter roll coating of gold onto glassine (Kurz; Whiley) • Plasma cleaning of glass for film deposition (Bauer; Strong 1935)		1934	Consolidated Vacuum Co. [CVC] started as a division of Eastman Kodak
1935	Evaporation roll coating of Cd:Mg and Zn for Metal-Paper capacitors ([Bosch]; Mansbridge 1905) • Aluminum metallization of 100" Hooker Telescope on Mt. Wilson, CA (Strong) • Single-layer AR coatings on optical lenses (Strong; Smakula [Zeiss]) • Flame cleaning of glass (Strong; Aitken 1893; Raleigh 1920) • Studies of growth morphology of metallic films (Andrade, Da & Martindale) • Magnetically enhanced sputtering (inverted cylindrical magnetron)(Penning)
1937	Sealed beam headlights with aluminized reflector (Wright [GE]) • Evaporation roll-coating (Whiley)		1937	Metal oil diffusion pump (Malter) • Klystron microwave tube (Varian Brothers) • Distillation Products, Inc., founded
1938	Evaporation onto an ion bombarded surface {patent} (Berghaus) • Book Procedures in Experimental Physics (Strong)		1938	Liquid air cold traps on oil diffusion pumps (late 1930s) • Vacuum freeze drying [Stokes]
1939	Two-layer AR coating (Cartwright & Turner) • AR-coated projection lenses for movie Gone With the Wind (Bausch & Lomb)		1939	Book The Electrochemistry of Gases and Other Dielectrics (Glocker & Lind)
1940	E-beam evaporation (Ruhle) • Cylindrical post magnetron (Penning & Mobius)	1940
			1941	National Research Corporation founded, later NRC Equipment Corporation, acquired by Norton (1965), acquired by Varian (1971)
1942	Triple-layer AR coating (Geffcken) • Metal ion sources for isotope separation (1940s)
1943	Conference on "Applications of Metallic Fluoride Reflection Reducing Films to Optical Elements"		1943	Mass spectrometer leak detector (Backus; Noir 1940)
1944	Electron cleaning of glass (Rice; Dimmick)
1945	Multilayer optical filters (Banning)	1945
1946	Film thickness measurement by X-ray adsorption (Friedman & Birks) • Goodfellow Corporation{UK} founded		1946	Balzers was founded • Vacuum Electronic Equipment Company (VEECO) founded
1947	Aluminizing of 200" Palomar telescope mirror (Strong)		1947	Invention of the transistor (Shockley, Bardeen, and Brattin) {started the age of solid-state electronics}
1948	Optical Coating Laboratory Inc. [OCLI] was founded • Flash evaporation by dropped particles (Harris & Siegel) • Film thickness control by optical transmission (Dufour) • Modern CVD processing begins (Lander & Germer)		1948	ECR plasmas formed (late 1940s) • Measurement of outgassing of materials (Hogg & Duckworth) • Varian Associates founded
1949	Studies of growth morphology of non-metallic films (Schulz)
1950	Sputtering theory (1950s & 1960s) (Wehner) • Semiconductor industry (1950s to present) • Hybrid microelectronics industry (1950s to present) • Cold mirror (Turner; Hoffman 1922; Schröder 1951) • Decorative metallizing of plastic (early 1950s) (Holland 1951; Hartman & Schneider 1951)	1950	1950	Cold panels in vacuum chambers (1950s and 1960s) (Meissner 1954) • Spinning rotor vacuum gauge (Beams) • Bayard-Alpert ionization gauge • Gas ballasting of mechanical pumps (Gaede)
1951	Providence Metallizing founded • OCLI moved from Washington DC to Santa Rosa, CA • Magnetically focused eleelectron beam evaporation source (Holland)
1952	Sputter cleaning to produce atomically clean surfaces (early 1950s) • Reactive evaporation (Auwarter; Brinsmaid 1953) • Plasma polymerized films for corrosion protection (early 1950s) • Use of collimation for film deposition (Hibi)		1952	Inverted cold cathode magnetron vacuum gauge (Beck & Bisbane) • ULVAC Japan founded • Consolidated Vacuum Corporation (CVC) founded
1953	Scotchlite™ Reflective Sheeting made by roll-to-roll coating [3M] • Term "reactive sputtering" introduced (Veszi) • Plasma deposition of (a–C:H) (Schmellenmeier)		1953	American Vacuum Society [AVS] founded • Temescal Metallurgical Corp [later BOCCT] founded for vacuum melting • Granville-Phillips founded • Getter pumping with evaporated Ti (Herb) •
1954	Long-focus E-beam gun (Pierce) • Epitaxial growth of Ge on Ge (Christensen & Teal) • Evaporation roll coater built [Leybold Systems]		1954	Hollow cathode effect studied (Little & von Engle) • Hot-cathode Magnetron Vacuum gauge (Conn & Daglish)
1955	Electron beam evaporation for thin film deposition became commonplace (Ruhle 1940) • rf sputtering of dielectrics proposed (Wehner) • Book Optical Properties of Thin Solid Films (Heavens) • Crystallographic effect on sputtering yield (Wehner)	1955	1955	Sputter cleaning of metal vacuum-surfaces for fusion devices (mid-1950s)
1956	First-surface metallizing of interior auto trim [Ford Motor Co.] • Crystallographic effects on sputtering yield (Wehner) • Book Vacuum Deposition of Thin Films (Holland)
1957	Vacuum cadmium plating accepted by the aircraft industry {Mil spec issued} • Reactive evaporation of films for optical coatings (Brismaid et al.; Auwarter 1960{plasma activation of reactive gases suggested in Auwarter patent}) • Society of Vacuum Coaters [SVC] founded		1957	NRC founded • High Vacuum Equipment Corporation founded • Turbomolecular pump (Becker) • Consolidated Electrodynamics Corporation [CEC] founded
1958	Epitaxial growth of films (Gunther) • NASA founded		1958	Kinney Manuf. Div of New York Air Brake [Kinney Vacuum] founded • First Pfeiffer turbomolecular pump [Pfeiffer] • Thermionics Laboratory founded • Sputter ion pump (Hall)
1959	Air-to-air strip coater [Temescal; NRC] • First study of "sculpted thin films" (STF) (Young & Kowal)		1959	Cold cathode magnetron gauge (Redhead) • Float glass {replaced rolled-plate and drawn-plate glass manufacturing} (Pilkington) • Varian Vacuum Division founded
1960	Plasma activation of polymer surfaces for adhesion (early 1960s) (Sharp & Schornhorn) • Ion sources for space propulsion developed (1960s) (Kaufman [NASA]) • Quartz crystal oscillator film thickness monitor • Plasma polymerization of styrene dielectric (Goodman)ont>	1960	1960	Hi-volume freeze drying plants [Stokes]
1961	Low-E coatings on glass [Leybold early 1960s] • Sputtering yield of elements (Laegried & Wehner; Yamamura, Matasunami & Itoh 1983)		1961	Modern capacitance manometer gauge (Wolfe) • Varian founded from National Research Corporation [NRC] • MKS Instruments founded
1962	Sputter profiling for chemical analysis (early 1960s) • Arc vapor deposition of carbon (Massey) and metals (Lucas et al) • RF sputtering of dielectrics for cleaning (Stuart & Wehner; Anderson, Mayer & Wehner) • Leybold Vacuum Products was founded in the USA • Vapor pressure of elements was compiled (Hoenig) • "Bias sputter deposition" patent (Wehner)		1962	Alcatel [France] founded • Granville-Phillips moved to Boulder, CO • R.D. Mathis founded • Book Scientific Foundations of Vacuum Techniques (Dushman)
1963	Open-ended, in-line (Ta and TaN) coater (Charschan, Glenn & Westgaard • Patent filed for Ion Plating process (Mattox) • "Plasma deposition" (later PECVD) (Alt, Ing & Laendle) • Book series Physics of Thin Films (edited by Hass, et al)
1964	PECVD of photovoltaic films (Bradley & Hammes; Spear & Lecomber 1972) • Denton Vacuum founded • Book Thin Films (ASM) • Closed-end, in-line sputter deposition line (Savach, Geissinger & Schockley 1964)		1964	Monopole RGA (G.E.)
1965	Bias sputter deposition (Maissel & Schaible) • Pulsed Laser Deposition {PLD} (Smith & Turner) • Multi-vacuum-zone web metallizer for cellulose acetate film [Galileo] • Plasma-enhanced CVD (Sterling & Swann)	1965
1966	Ion plating of aluminum on uranium reactor parts (Mattox & Rebarchik) • Ion plating with soft metals for lubrication (Spalvins, Przybyszewski & Buckley [NASA]) • Vacuum Metallurgical Co. founded [ULVAC] • Stick-on heat reflective window film [3M] • Book The Use of Thin Films in Physical Investigations (edited by Anderson) • RF sputter deposition of dielectric films (Davidse & Maissel) • Book Vapor Deposition (terms "Physical Vapor Deposition"[PVD] and "Chemical Vapor Deposition" [CVD] introduced)(Powell, Oxley & Blocker)		1966	Comdel was founded
1967	RF sputter deposition of chromium coating on razor blades (Lane [Schick]) • Ion plating patent (Mattox) • Triode sputter deposition (Baun; Wan, Chambers & Carmichael 1973; Tisone 1975) • Film deposition by exploding wires in good vacuum (Mattox, Mullendore & Rebarchik) • Airco Temescal [later BOCCT] founded		1967	Commercial quadrapole RGA • CTI-Cryogenics founded • Hollow cathode discharge melting furnace [ULVAC] • Leybold and Heraeus merge
1968	Ion plating small parts in a rotating cage (Mattox & Rebarchik; Carpenter, Klein & McCrary {"Ivadizing"—later called Ion Vapor Deposition {IVD} in the aerospace industry}) • Patent filed for 270º E-beam evaporator (Hanks) • MOCVD (Ruhrwein; Manaselvit) • Sierracin-Interex Div. [later CPFilms] developed e-beam deposited heatable window films (late 1960s) • Dektak™ stylus profilometer (VEECO) • Book Thin Film Technology (Berry, Hall & Harris) • Magnetron (closed-path) patent applied for (Clarke)		1968	Studies of high energy neutrals from ions reflected from cathodes (Jepsen; Vaumoron & DeBiasio 1970)
1969	Magnetron sputtering from inside hemispherical section (Mullay) • Sputter coater built [Leybold Systems] • Diagram of evaporated film morphology (Movchan & Demchishin {MD diagram}) • MCrAlY coatings on turbine blades • Book Thin Film Phenomena (Chopra)		1969	Association of Vacuum Equipment Manufacturers [AVEM] founded • Electronic Navigation Industries founded (name changed to ENI in 1989) • Hauzer Industries, The Netherlands, founded
1970	Hollow cathode electron source for evaporation ([ULVAC]; Morley & Smith 1972) • High rate multilayer optical coater [OCLI] • Hollow Cathode ion plating system [ULVAC] • Book Handbook of Thin Film Technology (edited by Maissel & Glang)	1970	1970	Continuous vacuum coater for glass [Stokes]
1971	Incorporation of large amounts of gas in deposited films by ion bombardment (Mattox & Kominiak; Cuomo & Gambino 1977) • Hard carbon {DLC} films (Aisenberg & Chabot; Weissmantel 1982) • Patent filed for sputter gun (Clarke) • Cathodic random arc vaporization source (Snaper; Sablev 1974) • Patent filed for parallel-plate reactor PECVD (Reinberg) • Paper metallized for cigarette packaging [Galileo] • Ion plating with an e-beam evaporation source (Chambers & Carmichael) • Magnetron patent granted (Clarke)
1972	Ion Cluster Beam Deposition (Tagaki) • Sputter deposition using ion gun in good vacuum (Weissmantel) • Effect of concurrent bombardment on film morphology (Mattox & Kominiak; Bunshah & Juntz) • Term "Activated Reactive Evaporation" (Bunshah & Raghuram) • Web coater delivered by General Engineering [later General Vacuum Equipment]		1972	Gas incorporation in surfaces by ion bombardment (Kornelsen; Chleck et al.1963) • CVC acquired by Bendix Corporation and reverted to CVC Products (1973)
1973	Ion plating used as a "strikecoat" for electroplating (Bell & Thompson) • Tico Titanium founded • Carbon films from ion source (Aisenberg & Chabot) • Magnetron (including planar) patent applied for (Corbani, Sloan Technology) • First commercial use of planar magnetron (Temescal/Cormia) • RCA Selectavision video disc
1974	UV/Ozone cleaning reported (Sowell, Cuthrell, Bland & Mattox) • Compressive stress in ion bombarded films (Bland, Kominiak & Mattox; Hoffman & Thornton {"atomic peening} 1977) • Planar magnetron patent applied for (Chapin) • Conference on Structure/Property Relationships in Thick Films and Bulk Coatings, which became the International Conference on Metallugical Coatings (ICMC)		1974	Polycold Systems founded
1975	Reactive ion plating (Murayama; Chin & Elsner) • Post cathode magnetron sputtering patent (Penfold & Thornton) • MBE of III-V semiconductors (Cho & Arthur) • "Alternating Ion Plating" (Schiller) • Chrome-coated plastic auto grill [Chevrolet] • ULVAC North America founded • Corbani magnetron patent granted	1975
1976	Ion gun used to provide concurrent bombardment of depositing film (Weissmantel)		1976	Ionization in arcs (Daalder) • Closed-loop pressure control system using Baratron capacitance manometer [MKS] • MDC Vacuum Products Corporation founded
1977	Mid-frequency planar magnetron reactive sputter deposition (Cormia), [Airco Inc] • Structure Zone Model of film growth by sputtering (Thornton; Messier 1984) • Sputtered heat mirror films on webs (Chahroudi [Suntek Research]) • First International Conference on Metallurgical Coatings (Chairman, Bunshah)
1978	Light diffracting {"prismatic"} films on webs [Coburn Corp] • Steered arc vaporization source (Dorodnov) • Plasma duct arc vaporization (Aksenov et al.) • Sierracin [later CPFilms] developed sputter deposited ITO window films • Microflex™ flexible circuit sheet {Cu on polyimide} [3M]		1978	Line of lobe booster blowers introduced [Stokes]
1979	Commercial in-line Low-E glass coaters • Commercialization of sputter deposited web coatings (late 1970s and early 1980s) (Cormia & Chahroudi) • Planar magnetron cathode patented [BOCCT] • In-line high-rate glass sputter coater [Leybold Systems] • Southwall Technologies founded • Chapin magnetron patent granted		1979	Southwall Technologies founded
1980	Ion gun to modify stress in evaporated chromium films (Hoffman & Gaerttner) • First large-scale sputter roll coater [Leybold for Southwall] • Arc vapor deposition commercialized in the USA [Multi-Arc] • Flex Products Division founded for web coating [OCLI] • Commercial Ag-based thermal controlled coatings [Leybold Systems] First commercial wide web coating machine [Southwall Corporation]	1980	1980	Book Vacuum Arcs, Theory and Applications edited by (Lafferty) • Book Glow Discharges (Chapman) • Thermal FM/MFC instruments [MKS]
1981	PVD hard coatings on tools (early 1980s) • Introduction of security OVIDs • Open-ended, multiple-chamber deposition of amorphous solar cells (Masatsugu, Cannella, Ovshinsky) • Decorative/functional coating of decorative hardware (early 1980s) [Leybold] • Sputter ion plating for decorative coating [Leybold Systems] • Sputter roll coater [Leybold Systems] • High-rate {ITO-Ag-ITO} in-line coater [Leybold Systems] • Silverlux™ first-surface silvered reflective film [3M]		1981	Flex Products Division of OCLI formed (separated from OCLI in 1988 to ICI, returned in 1994) • Comdel developed industry first solid-state RF generator for plasma applications
1982	Commercial gas evaporation of ultrafine particles [ULVAC] • Rotatable magnetron cylinder sputtering cathode patent (McKelvey) • Sputtering Materials Inc. [SMI] founded • Rotatable planar sputtering target [Tico Titanium] • Vacuum evaporated OEL device (Vincent, Barlow, Hann & Roberts)		1982	Spinning rotor vacuum gauge introduced [MKS]
1983	Bombardment-enhanced chemical reactivity reported (Lincoln, Geis, Pang & Efremow) • Compact discs [CDs] introduced [Phillips & Sony 1974–1983] • Hauzer Techno Coating founded • Commercial web coater for magnetic tapes [Leybold Systems] • Web metallizer with evaporation zone under vacuum during roll-change [Galileo]		1983	JT-60 Nuclear fusion vacuum system [ULVAC] • Hauzer Techno Coating, The Netherlands founded
1985	Patent on vacuum evaporated multilayer {PML} polymer films [GE]	1985
1986	Unbalanced magnetron sputtering (Windows & Savvides) • General Vacuum Equipment [GVE] founded from General Engineering		1986	MKS purchased HPS
1987	Laser ablation deposition of high Tc superconductor films (Dijkkamp et al) • End-Hall gridless ion source (Kaufman, Robinson & Seddo) • European Metallizers Association [EMA] founded • OCLI (Flex Products Division) develops optically variable ink pigment (ChromaFlair ™) • Sage Industrial Sales founded • Bipolar pulsed sputtering from single magnetron (Quazi)		1987	Commercial cluster tool (Applied Materials) • Leybold-Heraeus purchased by Degussa AG
1988	Dual cathode mid-frequency sputtering source (Este & Westwood) • Airco Solar Products became Airco Coating Technology [BOCCT] • Commercial cylindrical-rotating magnetron {DC C-Mag™} [BOCCT] • Pressure pulsing for controlling stress in sputter deposited films (Cuthrell & Mattox)		1988	Stokes Vacuum Division founded
1989	SVC Corporate Sponsor Program established • Courtaulds Performance Films founded [later CPFilms] • Goodfellow Corporation opened USA office		1989	All metal MFC’s [MKS] • Goodfellow opens USA office • SVC Corporate Sponsor Program established
1990	Commercial dual AC mid-frequency magnetrons {TwinMag™} [Leybold] • Web coater for banknote security [ULVAC] • Staggered Boats for web coating {AIMCAL award} [Leybold Systems] • MF reactive sputter deposition of Al2O3 [Leybold Systems]	1990	1990	Comdel developed industry-first delivered power detector/RF control system
1991	Catalina Coatings [later Delta V Technologies] established on GE evaporated Polymer-multilayer {PML} technology • Commercial ZrN decorative coater [Leybold Systems] • "Directed deposition" using collimated sputtering (Rossnagel et al) • Rod-shaped cathodic arc source (Vergason)
1992	ULVAC Technologies founded • Commercial reactive pulse-power dual magnetron sputtering (Scherer, Schmitt, Latz & Schanz)		1992	Hybrid turbomolecular/molecular drag pump • Hauzer Techno Coating acquired intellectual property rights of Vac-Tec Systems
1993	Patent on DLC coating on razor blades [Gillette]		1993	MeiVac founded • By-pass blowers introduced [Stokes]
1994	"Directed deposition" using sputtering "i-PVD" (Rossnagel & Hopwood)		1994	Comdel developed industry-first microprocessor-controlled hybrid, high-power RF generator • ENI became the first manufacturer of RF and DC high-power conversion systems to achieve ISO certification • 700/800 Series of Mini-Baratron Capacitance Manometer [MKS]
1995	Airco Coating Technology renamed to BOC Coating Technology [BOCCT] • silicon oxide barrier coating patent [QLF™ BOCCT] • Cluster in-line sputtering system for auto headlights [Leybold Systems]	1995
1997	Catalina Coatings renamed Delta V Technologies • NeoVac founded • AC-C-Mag™ technology introduced [BOCCT] • Copper interconnects on silicon {PVD TaN & Cu seed} [IBM] • In-line cluster coater for decorative coatings [Leybold Systems] • Leybold Technologies renamed as Leybold Systems • MultiArc + Bernex becomes Ionbond		1997	Association of Vacuum Equipment Manufacturers [AVEM] name changed to AVEM International
1998	Production of razor blades coated with DLC using a filtered arc source [Gillette]
1999	Delta V Technologies delivers large vertical glass coater • Courtaulds Performance Films becomes CPFilms Inc. • Balzers Process Systems (BPS) acquires Leybold Systems		1999	Consolidated Vacuum Corporation [CVC] purchases Commonwealth Scientific Corporation [CSC] • OCLI merges with JDS Uniphase Corporation • Applied Films and Leybold Large-Area Coatings merge
		2000
			2001	BOC Edwards acquires Stokes Vacuum